Albert Kesselring

1. Lead

Albert Kesselring (30 November 1885 – 16 July 1960) was a German field marshal and one of the most capable senior commanders of the Second World War, a soldier who served in both the army and the air force and who commanded, in turn, the Luftwaffe in Poland, France and the Soviet Union, the German forces in the Mediterranean, and the defence of Italy in 1943–1945. Born at Marktsteft in Bavaria, the son of a schoolteacher, he entered the Bavarian army as an artillery officer in 1904, served on the Western Front in the First World War, and rose through the Reichswehr to become, in 1933, head of the administrative department of the new Luftwaffe, the German air force. In 1936 he became Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe, and in 1938 he was given command of Luftflotte 1, an air fleet, in the invasion of Poland, and of Luftflotte 2 in the campaign in France and in the Battle of Britain. In 1941 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief South, with responsibility for the Mediterranean, and in 1943, after the Allied invasion of Italy, he became Commander-in-Chief South-West and commander of Army Group C, with responsibility for the defence of Italy, a defence that he conducted with great skill for twenty months, from Salerno to the Po Valley, and that made him, in the eyes of his enemies, the most respected German commander in the West.

Kesselring’s reputation has always been divided. His admirers praise him as a brilliant and versatile commander, a man who understood both the air war and the ground war, who was loved by his troops, and who conducted the defence of Italy with a skill that prolonged the campaign and tied down Allied forces that could otherwise have been used in France. His critics argue that he was a loyal servant of the Nazi regime, that he was responsible for war crimes in Italy, including the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves in Rome in March 1944, in which 335 Italians were murdered in reprisal for a partisan attack, and that he was convicted of war crimes by a British military court in Venice in 1947, a conviction that was later commuted and that led to his release in 1952. The debate over Kesselring, which began with his trial and continues today, makes him one of the most contested German commanders of the Second World War, a general whose military skill was real and whose moral responsibility remains a matter of dispute.

2. Key Facts

Born	30 November 1885, Marktsteft, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire
Died	16 July 1960 (aged 74), Bad Nauheim, West Germany
Nationality	German
Role / Office	Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal); Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe (1936–1937); commander of Luftflotte 1 and Luftflotte 2 (1939–1941); Commander-in-Chief South (1941–1943); Commander-in-Chief South-West and Army Group C in Italy (1943–1945); Commander-in-Chief West (March–May 1945)
Known for	The Luftwaffe in Poland, France and the Battle of Britain; the Mediterranean; the defence of Italy 1943–1945 (Salerno, Monte Cassino, Anzio); the Ardeatine Caves massacre (1944); convicted of war crimes at Venice (1947), released 1952
Spouse / Family	Pauline Keyser (married 1910, died 1963); one son, Rainer Kesselring
Military rank	Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal, from 1940)

3. Early Life and Education

Family and Childhood

Albert Kesselring was born on 30 November 1885 at Marktsteft, a small town in Bavaria, the son of Karl Adolf Kesselring, a schoolteacher and later a school inspector, and Rosa Kesselring, who came from a family of teachers. He was the eldest of several children, and he grew up in a household that was, by his own account, modest and hardworking, a family that valued education and that encouraged its children to seek a career in the service of the state. He attended school at Bayreuth, where he was a diligent pupil, and in 1904, at the age of eighteen, he entered the Bavarian army as a Fahnenjunker, an officer cadet, in the 2nd Foot Artillery Regiment at Metz. The choice of the artillery, rather than the more prestigious infantry or cavalry, was significant: the artillery was the technical arm of the army, and it attracted officers who were methodical, mathematical and interested in the science of gunnery, qualities that Kesselring possessed in full measure. He was a quiet and methodical officer, more notable for application than for brilliance, and his early reputation was that of a reliable and hardworking officer who could be trusted to carry out his orders thoroughly and without complaint.

Marktsteft and Bavaria

Marktsteft, the town in which Kesselring was born, was a small town on the River Main in Bavaria, a town of farmers and of craftsmen, and Kesselring grew up in a world that was, in his own words, “a world of work”. His father was a schoolteacher, a man who believed in education and in hard work, and who taught his children that a career in the service of the state was the highest ambition a young man could have. Kesselring, who was the eldest son, took that lesson to heart, and he chose the army, not because he was attracted by glory, but because it offered a career, a uniform and a sense of purpose. The Bavarian army, in which he served, was a distinct institution, with its own traditions and its own officer corps, and Kesselring, who was a Bavarian by birth and by temperament, absorbed its values: loyalty to the King, a belief in the army as a professional institution, and a suspicion of Prussian arrogance, values that would define his whole career.

Education and First Service

Kesselring was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the artillery in 1906, and he spent the years before the First World War in regimental service, learning the practical business of gunnery and of staff work. When the First World War broke out in August 1914, he was serving as a battery officer on the Western Front, and he was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class in 1914 and the Iron Cross First Class in 1916. After the war, he was one of the officers retained in the Reichswehr, and he rose steadily through the ranks, serving in the War Ministry and as a staff officer in various commands. In 1933, after the creation of the Luftwaffe, he was transferred to the air force, although he had never flown an aircraft, and he was appointed head of the administrative department of the Luftwaffe, a post that gave him responsibility for the organisation and expansion of the new air force. In 1936 he became Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe, and in 1937 he was given command of Luftflotte 3, an air fleet, in the Rhineland. He was a quick learner, and he understood, earlier than most army officers, the importance of air power, and he became, in the words of one historian, “the soldier who learned to fly”, a description that captures both his adaptability and his ambition.

4. Rise to Prominence

The Luftwaffe in Poland and France

Kesselring’s rise to prominence began in 1939, when he was given command of Luftflotte 1, an air fleet, in the invasion of Poland, and in 1940, when he was given command of Luftflotte 2 in the campaign in France and in the Battle of Britain. In Poland, his aircraft supported the advance of the German army, bombing Polish airfields, railways and troops, and in France, his aircraft supported the breakthrough at Sedan and the advance to the Channel coast, and then, in the summer of 1940, they took part in the Battle of Britain, the attempt by the Luftwaffe to destroy the Royal Air Force and to prepare for the invasion of Britain. Kesselring, who was promoted to field marshal in July 1940, after the fall of France, was responsible for the air offensive against Britain, and he was, in the words of one historian, “the man who tried to win the Battle of Britain and failed”, a failure that was due, in part, to the strength of the Royal Air Force, and in part to the mistakes of the Luftwaffe’s commander, Hermann Göring, who interfered in the conduct of the battle. Kesselring’s reputation, however, survived the failure, and he was regarded by his superiors as a capable and reliable commander.

Commander-in-Chief South

In 1941, Kesselring was appointed Commander-in-Chief South, with responsibility for the Mediterranean, a theatre that included North Africa, Malta and the Balkans, and in that post he was responsible for the support of the German and Italian forces in North Africa, under Erwin Rommel, and for the air offensive against Malta, the British island fortress that controlled the supply routes in the Mediterranean. He was a popular commander, who visited his troops in the front line, who understood the problems of supply in the desert, and who was, in the words of his soldiers, “Smiling Albert”, a nickname that reflected his optimism and his ability to inspire confidence. He was also a commander who understood the importance of air power in the desert war, and who used his aircraft to attack British supply convoys and to support Rommel’s offensives. In 1942, after the failure of the German offensive at El Alamein and the Allied landings in North Africa, Kesselring was responsible for the withdrawal of the German and Italian forces to Tunisia, and for their surrender in May 1943, a surrender that ended the war in North Africa and that left the Allies free to invade Sicily and Italy.

5. Albert Kesselring’s Role in World War II

The Battle of Britain and the Soviet Union

Kesselring’s role in the Battle of Britain, in the summer and autumn of 1940, was to command Luftflotte 2, the air fleet that was responsible for the daylight bombing of London and of south-eastern England. The battle, which was fought between the Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force, was the first major campaign in history to be fought entirely in the air, and it ended in a German defeat, when the Luftwaffe, which had lost more than 1,700 aircraft, abandoned the daylight bombing and turned to night bombing, the Blitz. Kesselring, who had argued for the bombing of the Royal Air Force’s airfields, rather than of London, was overruled by Göring, and the decision to bomb London, which was made in September 1940, allowed the Royal Air Force to recover and to win the battle. In 1941, Kesselring’s air fleet took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, where it supported the advance of Army Group Centre, and where it was responsible for the destruction of large numbers of Soviet aircraft on the ground in the first days of the invasion. He was then transferred to the Mediterranean, where he would spend the rest of the war.

The Blitz and the Failure over Britain

The failure of the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain has been the subject of much debate, and Kesselring’s role in it has been assessed in different ways. His defenders argue that he was a capable commander who was hampered by Göring’s interference, by the shortage of aircraft, and by the strength of the Royal Air Force; his critics argue that he underestimated the Royal Air Force, that he failed to understand the importance of radar, and that he carried out the bombing of London, a decision that allowed the Royal Air Force to recover. The debate continues, but the consensus is that the Battle of Britain was a defeat for the Luftwaffe, and that Kesselring, although he was not solely responsible for it, bears a share of the responsibility. The battle was, in the words of one historian, “the first defeat of the Luftwaffe”, and it was a defeat that marked the end of the German offensive in the West and the beginning of a long war of attrition.

The Defence of Italy, 1943–1945

Kesselring’s greatest achievement was the defence of Italy in 1943–1945, a campaign that lasted twenty months and that tied down more than twenty Allied divisions. After the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 and the armistice with Italy in September 1943, Kesselring, who was Commander-in-Chief South-West, was responsible for the defence of Italy against the Allied invasion, and he conducted that defence with great skill. He ordered the German forces to withdraw slowly to the north, fighting a series of delaying actions at Salerno, at the Gustav Line, at Monte Cassino and at Anzio, and he used the terrain of Italy — the mountains, the rivers and the narrow valleys — to slow the Allied advance and to inflict heavy casualties. He was, in the words of the British historian John Ellis, “the most able German commander in the West”, and his defence of Italy has been studied in military schools around the world as an example of a fighting withdrawal. The campaign ended in May 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered, a week before the end of the war in Europe, and Kesselring, who had been appointed Commander-in-Chief West in March 1945, was captured by the Americans in May 1945.

The Ardeatine Caves Massacre

The darkest episode in Kesselring’s career was the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves in Rome on 24 March 1944, in which 335 Italians — including 75 Jews — were murdered by the SS in reprisal for a partisan attack on a German police unit in Rome on 23 March, in which 33 German policemen were killed. Kesselring, who was the senior German commander in Italy, was informed of the attack, and he approved the reprisal, ordering that ten Italians should be killed for every German killed, a ratio that was, in the words of the British military court that later tried him, “a deliberate and systematic violation of the laws of war”. The massacre, which was carried out by the SS under the command of Herbert Kappler, has been described as one of the worst war crimes committed in Italy, and Kesselring’s responsibility for it was the central charge at his trial in Venice in 1947. Kesselring later claimed that he had not known the exact number of victims, and that he had believed that the reprisal would be limited to those who had been condemned to death; but the court found that he had approved the reprisal, that he had known that it would involve the murder of civilians, and that he was therefore guilty of war crimes.

6. Key Decisions

Decisions in Italy

Defending Italy rather than withdrawing (September 1943). Kesselring’s decision, after the armistice with Italy, to defend Italy rather than to withdraw to the Alps, was the decisive choice of his career. Hitler had wanted to withdraw to northern Italy, but Kesselring argued that Italy should be defended in the south, in order to keep the Allies as far as possible from Germany, and Hitler accepted his argument. The decision prolonged the war in Italy for twenty months, and it tied down Allied forces that could otherwise have been used in France.

Holding the Gustav Line (1943–1944). His decision to hold the Gustav Line, the German defensive line across Italy at Cassino, was a decision to fight a defensive battle in terrain that favoured the defender, and it succeeded: the Allies, who attacked the line four times, could not break through it until May 1944, and the defence of the line cost the Allies heavily.

Approving the Ardeatine reprisal (March 1944). His decision to approve the reprisal for the partisan attack in Rome, ordering that ten Italians should be killed for every German killed, was the most criminal act of his career. He later claimed that he had not known the exact number of victims, but the British military court found that he had approved the reprisal and that he was guilty of war crimes.

Decisions Before Italy

Bombing London (September 1940). Kesselring’s part, as commander of Luftflotte 2, in carrying out the bombing of London — after Göring overruled his preference for the Royal Air Force’s airfields — allowed the Royal Air Force to recover and to win the Battle of Britain. He later claimed that he had opposed the decision, but the evidence shows that he supported it, and that he bears a share of the responsibility for the German defeat in the battle.

Supporting Rommel in North Africa (1941–1942). His decision to support Rommel’s offensives in North Africa, by providing air support and by ensuring the supply of the Afrika Korps, was a decision that reflected his understanding of the importance of air power in the desert war, and it contributed to Rommel’s successes at Gazala and at Tobruk in 1942. The support was not without cost: the Luftwaffe in the Mediterranean was stretched thin, its aircraft were worn out by the desert conditions, and by the end of 1942 it could no longer protect Rommel’s supply lines, a failure that contributed to the German defeat at El Alamein.

7. Controversies

The Ardeatine Caves and War Crimes

The central controversy about Kesselring concerns his responsibility for the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves in Rome on 24 March 1944, and for other war crimes committed in Italy. His defenders argue that he was a soldier who fought a military war, that he did not order the massacre, and that he cannot be held responsible for crimes committed by the SS, which was not under his command. His critics reply that he was the senior German commander in Italy, that he approved the reprisal, that he ordered that ten Italians should be killed for every German killed, and that he knew that the reprisal would involve the murder of civilians. The British military court that tried him in Venice in 1947 found him guilty of war crimes and sentenced him to death, a sentence that was later commuted to life imprisonment, and then to twenty-one years, and that led to his release in 1952 on grounds of ill health. The controversy continues, and it is a reminder that the defence of Italy, which Kesselring conducted with such skill, was also a war in which civilians were murdered, and in which the German commander bore a share of the responsibility.

The Trial at Venice

A related controversy concerns Kesselring’s trial at Venice in 1947, and the question of whether the trial was fair. Kesselring’s defenders argue that the trial was a political trial, that the evidence was incomplete, and that the sentence of death was excessive; his critics argue that the trial was fair, that the evidence was overwhelming, and that the sentence was just. The controversy has been complicated by the fact that Kesselring was released in 1952, after serving only five years of his sentence, and that he was, in the words of one historian, “the only German field marshal to be convicted of war crimes and then released”, a fact that has been cited by his defenders as evidence of his innocence, and by his critics as evidence of the willingness of the Western Allies, in the Cold War, to rehabilitate German officers. The debate continues, but the judgement of the court at Venice, which convicted Kesselring of war crimes, remains the authoritative judgement on his conduct in Italy.

“Smiling Albert” and the Defence of Italy

A second controversy concerns Kesselring’s reputation as “Smiling Albert”, the popular and optimistic commander who was loved by his troops, and the question of whether that reputation is deserved. His defenders argue that he was a humane commander, who cared for his men, who visited them in the front line, and who was, in the words of his soldiers, “a father to his troops”; his critics argue that his popularity was a propaganda creation, and that a commander who approved the murder of 335 Italians at the Ardeatine Caves cannot be described as humane. The controversy over his reputation is therefore also a controversy over the nature of generalship, and over the question of whether a commander can be both popular and criminal, and whether popularity, in a time of war, is a virtue or a vice. The debate continues, but the consensus among historians is that Kesselring was a capable commander who was also responsible for war crimes, and that his reputation must be judged with both admiration for his skill and condemnation of his crimes.

8. Later Life and Death

Trial, Imprisonment and Release

Kesselring’s later life was spent, first, in prison, and then, after his release, in retirement in West Germany. After his capture by the Americans in May 1945, he was held in custody, and in 1947 he was tried by a British military court at Venice, on charges of war crimes, including the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves. He was convicted and sentenced to death, a sentence that caused a sensation in Germany and in Britain, where many, including Field Marshal Alexander, who had fought against him in Italy, argued that the sentence was excessive and that Kesselring was a soldier, not a war criminal. The sentence was commuted, first to life imprisonment and then to twenty-one years, and in 1952, on grounds of ill health, he was released from prison at Werl, in West Germany. He returned to West Germany, where he was welcomed as a hero by many, and where he became a leading figure in the associations of former soldiers, and a critic of the rearmament of West Germany, which he opposed on the grounds that it would divide Germany.

Memoirs and Final Years

After his release, Kesselring settled at Bad Nauheim in West Germany, where he wrote his memoirs, Soldat bis zum letzten Tag, published in English as A Soldier’s Record in 1953, a book that defended his conduct in Italy and that presented him as a soldier who had fought a military war. The book was a success, and it made him, in the eyes of many in West Germany, a hero, a reputation that has survived the controversies over his trial. He also became involved in the politics of the veterans’ associations, and he argued, unsuccessfully, against the rearmament of West Germany and for the reunification of Germany. His health declined in the 1950s, and he died at Bad Nauheim on 16 July 1960, aged seventy-four. He was buried with military honours, and his funeral was attended by a large number of former soldiers, a testament to the loyalty that he inspired in his troops. He left behind a reputation that remains divided: to his admirers, a brilliant commander and a humane soldier; to his critics, a war criminal who escaped justice.

9. Legacy of Albert Kesselring

The Defence of Italy

Kesselring’s lasting legacy is the defence of Italy in 1943–1945, a campaign that has been studied in military schools around the world as an example of a fighting withdrawal. The campaign lasted twenty months, it tied down more than twenty Allied divisions, and it inflicted heavy casualties on the Allies, at a cost to the Germans that was, in relative terms, far lower. Kesselring’s defence of Italy showed that a skilled commander, using terrain and fighting a delaying action, could hold off a superior enemy for a long time, and it is the reason why he is remembered as one of the most capable German commanders of the war. The campaign is also remembered as a tragedy, because it was fought in a country that had already suffered greatly, and because it prolonged the war in Italy and cost the lives of thousands of soldiers and civilians, a cost that must be set against the military skill with which the defence was conducted.

The Ardeatine Caves in Memory

Kesselring’s legacy is also the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves, which is remembered in Italy as one of the worst war crimes committed in the country, and which is commemorated every year on 24 March, the anniversary of the massacre. The caves, which are now a memorial, are visited by thousands of Italians every year, and the names of the 335 victims are inscribed on the walls, a reminder of the cost of the German occupation. Kesselring’s name is associated with the massacre, and he is remembered in Italy, not as a brilliant commander, but as a war criminal, a reputation that has survived his release from prison and his memoirs. The contrast between his reputation in Germany, where he is remembered as a hero, and his reputation in Italy, where he is remembered as a criminal, is a measure of the division in his legacy, and it is a reminder that the memory of a commander depends on the perspective of those who remember him.

10. Assessment by Historians

The Military Assessment

Military historians assess Kesselring as one of the most capable German commanders of the Second World War, and the assessment rests on his record in the Mediterranean and in Italy. He was a versatile commander, who understood both the air war and the ground war, who was able to command an air fleet, a theatre, and an army group, and who conducted the defence of Italy with a skill that has been studied in military schools around the world. Historians also note his limitations: he was not a great strategist, and his success in Italy was due, in part, to the terrain and to the mistakes of the Allies, who were fighting a secondary campaign with limited resources; he was also a commander who, although he was popular with his troops, was not always popular with his superiors, and who was, in the words of one historian, “a soldier who was too clever for his own good”. The consensus among historians is that Kesselring was a talented commander, but not a great one, and that his reputation has been inflated by his memoirs and by the admiration of his former enemies, who regarded him as the most respected German commander in the West.

The Moral Assessment

The moral assessment of Kesselring is harsh, and it has become harsher over time. He was a senior commander who approved the massacre at the Ardeatine Caves, who was responsible for other war crimes in Italy, and who continued to serve a criminal regime long after he knew that the war was lost. His defenders argue that he was a soldier who fought a military war, and that he cannot be held responsible for crimes committed by the SS; his critics reply that he was the senior German commander in Italy, that he approved the reprisal, and that he knew that it would involve the murder of civilians. The consensus among historians is that Kesselring was guilty of war crimes, and that his conviction at Venice was just, although the sentence of death was excessive. He is remembered as a talented commander who was also a war criminal, a judgement that reflects the complexity of the German war and of the men who fought it, and that serves as a warning that military skill is no excuse for moral failure.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was Albert Kesselring?
Albert Kesselring (1885–1960) was a German field marshal who commanded the Luftwaffe in Poland, France and the Battle of Britain, the German forces in the Mediterranean, and the defence of Italy in 1943–1945. He was convicted of war crimes by a British military court at Venice in 1947 and released in 1952.

What was Kesselring’s role in the Battle of Britain?
Kesselring commanded Luftflotte 2, the air fleet responsible for the daylight bombing of London and south-eastern England in the summer and autumn of 1940. The Luftwaffe lost more than 1,700 aircraft in the battle, and it abandoned the daylight bombing in favour of night bombing, the Blitz.

What was the Ardeatine Caves massacre?
On 24 March 1944, 335 Italians, including 75 Jews, were murdered by the SS at the Ardeatine Caves outside Rome, in reprisal for a partisan attack on a German police unit on 23 March, in which 33 German policemen were killed. Kesselring, the senior German commander in Italy, approved the reprisal, ordering that ten Italians should be killed for every German killed.

Why was Kesselring called “Smiling Albert”?
His soldiers called him “Smiling Albert” because of his optimism and his ability to inspire confidence, and because he visited his troops in the front line. The nickname reflected his popularity with his men, a popularity that survived the war.

Was Kesselring convicted of war crimes?
Yes. In 1947 a British military court at Venice convicted him of war crimes and sentenced him to death. The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and then to twenty-one years, and he was released in 1952 on grounds of ill health.

How long did Kesselring defend Italy?
Kesselring defended Italy for twenty months, from the Allied invasion at Salerno in September 1943 to the surrender of the German forces in Italy in May 1945. His defence tied down more than twenty Allied divisions.

Sources

1. Wikipedia, “Albert Kesselring” — consolidated biography: birth 30 November 1885, death 16 July 1960, Luftflotte 2, Battle of Britain, Mediterranean, defence of Italy, Ardeatine Caves, trial at Venice 1947, release 1952.
2. Albert Kesselring, A Soldier’s Record (1953) — memoirs; the Luftwaffe, the Mediterranean, the defence of Italy.
3. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War (2008) — the Luftwaffe, the Battle of Britain, and the war in Italy.
4. John Ellis, Cassino: The Hollow Victory (1984) — the defence of Italy, the Gustav Line, and Kesselring’s generalship.
5. Robert Katz, Death in Rome (1967) — the Ardeatine Caves massacre and Kesselring’s responsibility for it.
6. James Holland, Italy’s Sorrow (2008) — the Italian campaign of 1944–1945 and the end of the war in Italy.