Flak 88

1. Lead

The Flak 88 — the German 8.8 cm Flak 18, 36 and 37 — was the most famous anti-aircraft gun of the Second World War, and one of the most versatile weapons of the war. Designed in the 1920s and 1930s by Krupp, the Flak 88 was a high-velocity 88 mm gun, mounted on a cruciform platform, that could fire a shell to a height of more than 10,000 metres, to shoot down high-flying bombers, and that could also be used, with a different shell, to destroy tanks, at a range of more than 2,000 metres. The gun was used by the German Army, by the Luftwaffe and by the Waffen-SS, in every theatre of the war, from France to North Africa to Russia, and it became known, to Allied soldiers, as the “88”, a name that inspired fear, because the gun could destroy any Allied tank, and because it was used as an anti-tank gun, in France in 1940, in North Africa in 1941 and 1942, and in Russia in 1941 and 1942, before the Germans had a tank gun that could match it. More than 20,000 Flak 88 guns were built, in all versions, and the gun remained in service after the war, in many countries, until the 1950s and 1960s, and it is remembered today as one of the most successful weapons of the Second World War.

The Flak 88’s story is a story of a gun that was designed for one purpose, and that was used for another, and that was successful in both. The gun was designed to shoot down aircraft, and it did, in the defence of Germany, against British and American bombers, and in North Africa and in Russia, against Soviet and Allied aircraft, but it was also used, by German soldiers who understood its power, to destroy tanks, and it was the gun that stopped the British attack at Arras in 1940, that destroyed British tanks at Halfaya Pass in 1941, and that destroyed Soviet tanks in Russia in 1941, when no other German gun could. The Flak 88’s versatility was its greatest strength, and it was the reason why it was built in such numbers, and why it served in every theatre of the war, and why it is remembered today as the most famous gun of the Second World War.

2. Key Facts

Type	Anti-aircraft gun (also used as anti-tank gun)
Origin	Germany
Designer	Krupp
Manufacturer	Krupp, Essen; Rheinmetall; and others
In service	1933–1945 (German service); later in other countries to the 1960s
Produced	1933–1945; more than 20,000 built (all 88 mm Flak versions)
Weight	About 7,400 kg (Flak 36, in action); about 8,200 kg (travelling)
Length	About 7.62 m (travelling)
Barrel length	4.93 m (L/56)
Calibre	88 mm (8.8 cm)
Shell weight	About 9.4 kg (HE); about 9.6 kg (AP)
Muzzle velocity	About 820 m/s (HE); about 790–800 m/s (AP)
Rate of fire	About 15–20 rounds per minute
Effective ceiling	About 8,000 m (effective); about 10,600 m (maximum)
Effective range (anti-tank)	About 2,000 m; penetration about 110 mm at 1,000 m
Crew	10–11 (gun crew); up to 12 with ammunition handlers
Traverse	360 degrees
Elevation	−3 to +85 degrees

3. Background and Development

The Treaty of Versailles and the Secret 88

The Flak 88 was designed in the 1920s, when Germany was forbidden, by the Treaty of Versailles, to build anti-aircraft guns, and when Krupp, which had built guns for the German Army in the First World War, was working in secret, in Sweden and in the Netherlands, to design a new anti-aircraft gun. The gun that Krupp designed was an 88 mm gun, with a high muzzle velocity, which could fire a shell to a height of more than 10,000 metres, and which was mounted on a cruciform platform, which allowed it to traverse 360 degrees and to elevate to 85 degrees. The gun was first built in 1933, as the Flak 18, and it was used in the Spanish Civil War, in 1936 to 1939, where it was used by the German Condor Legion, to shoot down Republican aircraft, and where it was first used, by German gunners, to destroy Republican tanks, which was a use that its designers had not intended, but that proved to be one of its most important uses in the Second World War.

Krupp and the Flak 18, 36 and 37

The Flak 88 was built in three main versions, all designed by Krupp, and this section explains how they differed, and how the cruciform mount that carried them worked. The Flak 18, built in 1933, was the first version, with a barrel in one piece; the Flak 36, built in 1936, had a barrel in three sections, which was easier to replace when it wore out, and a different sight and a different shield; and the Flak 37, built in 1939, had a new fire-control system, which allowed it to be aimed more accurately, and was used in the defence of Germany against British and American bombers. The three versions were almost identical in appearance, used the same ammunition, and were used together in the same batteries, and Allied soldiers called them all the 88, a name that referred to the calibre of 88 mm and to the gun’s fearsome reputation as an anti-aircraft gun and as an anti-tank gun. The gun’s most distinctive feature was its cruciform mount, a platform in the shape of a cross, with four legs that folded up for travelling and down for firing, which allowed the gun to traverse 360 degrees and to elevate from minus 3 to plus 85 degrees, to be set up in about two minutes, and to be towed by a truck or a half-track, and the mount was so successful that it was copied by Britain and the United States after the war.

The Three Main Versions

The Flak 88 was built in three main versions: the Flak 18, which was the first version, built in 1933, and which had a barrel in one piece; the Flak 36, which was built in 1936, and which had a barrel in three sections, which was easier to replace when it wore out, and which had a different sight and a different shield; and the Flak 37, which was built in 1939, and which had a new fire-control system, which allowed it to be aimed more accurately, and which was used in the defence of Germany, against British and American bombers. The three versions were almost identical in appearance, and they used the same ammunition, and they were used together, in the same batteries, and they were all known, to Allied soldiers, as the “88”, a name that did not distinguish between the versions, but that referred to the gun’s calibre, 88 mm, and to its fearsome reputation, as an anti-aircraft gun and as an anti-tank gun.

The Cruciform Mount

The Flak 88’s most distinctive feature was its cruciform mount, which was a platform in the shape of a cross, with four legs that folded up for travelling and that folded down for firing, and which allowed the gun to traverse 360 degrees and to elevate from −3 to +85 degrees. The cruciform mount made the gun stable when it was firing, and it allowed it to be set up quickly, in about two minutes, and it allowed it to be towed by a truck or by a half-track, which was essential for a gun that had to be moved frequently, in the desert of North Africa and on the Eastern Front. The mount was designed by Krupp, and it was one of the most successful gun mounts of the war, and it was copied by other countries, including Britain and the United States, which built anti-aircraft guns on similar mounts, after the war.

The Spanish Civil War

The Flak 88 first saw combat in the Spanish Civil War, in 1936 to 1939, where it was used by the German Condor Legion, to shoot down Republican aircraft, and where it was first used to destroy Republican tanks, at a time when the German Army had no anti-tank gun that could penetrate the armour of the Soviet T-26 and BT tanks that the Republicans used. The German gunners in Spain learned that the Flak 88, with its high muzzle velocity and its armour-piercing shell, could destroy a tank at a range of more than 2,000 metres, and they reported this to Berlin, where the lesson was learned, and where the Flak 88 was issued to anti-tank units, as well as to anti-aircraft units, in the Second World War. The Spanish Civil War was the Flak 88’s first test, and it passed it, as an anti-aircraft gun and as an anti-tank gun, and it was there that its reputation as the “88” was made, a reputation that would follow it through the Second World War.

4. Design

The Gun, the Mount and the Sights

The Flak 88 was an 88 mm gun, with a barrel 4.93 metres long, which was 56 calibres long, and which fired a shell of about 9.4 kilograms, at a muzzle velocity of about 820 metres per second, to a height of more than 10,000 metres, and to a range of more than 14,000 metres, against ground targets. The gun was mounted on a cruciform platform, which allowed it to traverse 360 degrees and to elevate from −3 to +85 degrees, and which was towed by a truck or by a half-track, and which could be set up in about two minutes. The gun was aimed with a sight that allowed the gunner to track an aircraft, and with a fire-control system that calculated the aircraft’s height, speed and course, and that set the fuse of the shell, so that it would explode at the right height, near the aircraft. The gun’s crew consisted of 10 to 11 men, who loaded the shells, aimed the gun, and fired it, at a rate of about 15 to 20 rounds per minute, which was fast for a gun of its size, and which was essential for an anti-aircraft gun, which had to fire many shells to hit a fast-moving aircraft.

Ammunition: HE and Armour-Piercing

The Flak 88’s versatility came from its ammunition, and this section explains the two shells it fired and the fire-control system that made them accurate. The high-explosive shell, weighing about 9.4 kilograms, was used against aircraft, exploding in the air near the aircraft and sending fragments in all directions, while the armour-piercing shell, weighing about 9.6 kilograms, was used against tanks, and could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres and about 90 mm at 2,000 metres, which was enough to penetrate any Allied tank in 1940 and 1941, including the British Matilda and the French Char B1, the heaviest Allied tanks of the time. The gun also fired high-explosive shells against ground targets such as infantry and fortifications, and was used as an artillery gun in North Africa and in Russia, where its long range and high velocity made it useful against targets other guns could not reach. The high-explosive shell was fitted with a time fuse, set by the fire-control system, so that it would explode at the right height near the aircraft, and the fuse was set by a machine that calculated the aircraft’s height, speed and course from data provided by a rangefinder and a predictor. The system was complex and required a trained crew, but it made the Flak 88 more accurate than other anti-aircraft guns, and when the gun was used as an anti-tank gun, the gunner aimed directly with the sights, a simpler task that was one reason the gun was so successful in that role too.

High-Explosive and Anti-Tank Shells

The Flak 88 fired two main types of shell: a high-explosive shell, which weighed about 9.4 kilograms, and which was used against aircraft, and which exploded in the air, near the aircraft, and sent fragments in all directions; and an armour-piercing shell, which weighed about 9.6 kilograms, and which was used against tanks, and which could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, and about 90 mm at 2,000 metres, which was enough to penetrate the armour of any Allied tank in 1940 and 1941, including the British Matilda and the French Char B1, which were the heaviest Allied tanks of the time. The gun also fired a high-explosive shell against ground targets, such as infantry and fortifications, and it was used as an artillery gun, in North Africa and in Russia, where its long range and its high velocity made it useful against targets that other guns could not reach. The Flak 88’s ammunition was its versatility, and it was the reason why the gun could be used as an anti-aircraft gun, as an anti-tank gun and as an artillery gun, and why it was so successful in all three roles.

The Fuse and Fire Control

The Flak 88’s high-explosive shell was fitted with a time fuse, which was set by the fire-control system, so that the shell would explode at the right height, near the aircraft, and the fuse was set by a machine, which was part of the gun’s fire-control system, and which calculated the aircraft’s height, speed and course, from data provided by a rangefinder and by a predictor. The fire-control system was complex, and it required a trained crew, and it was the reason why the Flak 88 was more accurate than other anti-aircraft guns, and why it shot down more aircraft than any other German anti-aircraft gun. The gun’s fire control was also used when it was used as an anti-tank gun, although the gunner then aimed the gun directly, using its sights, and fired at the tank, without the need for the fire-control system, which was a simpler task, and which was one reason why the gun was so successful as an anti-tank gun, even though it had been designed as an anti-aircraft gun.

Mobility and the Gun Crew

The Flak 88 was towed by a truck or by a half-track, and it could be set up in about two minutes, and it could be moved quickly, which was essential for a gun that was used as an anti-tank gun, in France, in North Africa and in Russia, where it had to be moved to meet a tank attack, and where it had to be set up quickly, before the tanks arrived. The gun’s crew consisted of 10 to 11 men, who were trained to load, aim and fire the gun, and who worked together, in a team, to keep the gun firing, at a rate of 15 to 20 rounds per minute, which was fast, and which required practice and discipline. The gun’s crew were among the best-trained men in the German Army, and they were proud of their gun, and they knew that it was the most famous gun in the German Army, and that it was feared by the Allies, who called it the “88”, and who learned to respect it, and to avoid it, whenever they could.

5. Variants

Flak 18, 36, 37 and 41

Variant	Years	Key features	Production
Flak 18	1933–1936	First version; one-piece barrel; used in Spain	Included in total
Flak 36	1936–1939	Three-section barrel; new sight and shield	Included in total
Flak 37	1939–1945	New fire-control system; main wartime version	Included in total
Flak 41	1941–1945	Longer barrel (L/74); higher velocity; 1,000 m/s; few built	About 550
8.8 cm KwK 36	1942–1944	Tank gun version for Tiger I; adapted from Flak 36	About 1,347
8.8 cm KwK 43	1943–1945	Tank gun version for Tiger II; L/71	About 490

The Flak 88 was built in three main versions, the Flak 18, 36 and 37, which were almost identical, and which used the same ammunition, and which were used together, in the same batteries, and which were all known as the “88”. A fourth version, the Flak 41, was built in 1941, with a longer barrel, of 74 calibres, and a higher muzzle velocity, of about 1,000 metres per second, and it was intended to replace the Flak 18, 36 and 37, but it was built in only about 550 examples, because it was more complex and more expensive, and because it had problems with its barrel, which wore out quickly. The Flak 88’s design was also adapted for use as a tank gun, as the 8.8 cm KwK 36, for the Tiger I, and as the 8.8 cm KwK 43, for the Tiger II, which were the most powerful tank guns of the war, and which were feared by Allied tank crews, just as the Flak 88 was feared by Allied aircrews and tank crews.

The Flak 41 and the Tank Guns

The Flak 88 was improved once, in the Flak 41, and its design was adapted into the most feared tank guns of the war, and this section covers both developments. The Flak 41 was an attempt to give the gun a longer barrel and a higher muzzle velocity, so that it could shoot down aircraft at a greater height and penetrate thicker armour as an anti-tank gun: its barrel was 74 calibres long, against the Flak 36’s 56, and its muzzle velocity was about 1,000 metres per second, against the Flak 36’s 820, so it could penetrate about 150 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, against the Flak 36’s 110 mm. The Flak 41, however, was more complex, more expensive, and its barrel wore out quickly, so only about 550 were built, and it was used mainly in the defence of Germany, where its higher velocity was useful against high-flying American bombers. The Flak 88’s design was also adapted as a tank gun, first as the KwK 36 for the Tiger I, and then as the KwK 43 for the Tiger II, and the adaptation was a success, because the gun’s high velocity and armour-piercing shell made it an ideal tank gun: the KwK 36 could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, and the KwK 43 about 200 mm, and they were the most powerful tank guns of the war, feared by Allied tank crews who learned to avoid engaging a Tiger at long range.

A Longer, Faster Gun

The Flak 41 was an attempt to improve the Flak 88, by giving it a longer barrel and a higher muzzle velocity, so that it could shoot down aircraft at a greater height, and so that it could penetrate thicker armour, as an anti-tank gun. The Flak 41’s barrel was 74 calibres long, against the Flak 36’s 56 calibres, and its muzzle velocity was about 1,000 metres per second, against the Flak 36’s 820 metres per second, and it could penetrate about 150 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, against the Flak 36’s 110 mm. The Flak 41, however, was more complex, it was more expensive, and its barrel wore out quickly, and it was built in only about 550 examples, and it was used mainly in the defence of Germany, where its higher velocity was useful against high-flying American bombers. The Flak 41 is a reminder that a gun can be improved, but that the improvement must be worth the cost, and that the Flak 36, which was simpler and cheaper, was the gun that was built in large numbers, and that won the reputation of the “88”.

From Flak to Tank Gun

The Flak 88’s design was adapted for use as a tank gun, first as the KwK 36, for the Tiger I, and then as the KwK 43, for the Tiger II, and the adaptation was a success, because the Flak 88’s high velocity and its armour-piercing shell made it an ideal tank gun, and because the Tiger I and the Tiger II, which were armed with the Flak 88’s descendants, became the most feared tanks of the war. The KwK 36 could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, and the KwK 43 could penetrate about 200 mm at the same range, and they were the most powerful tank guns of the war, and they were feared by Allied tank crews, who learned to avoid engaging a Tiger at long range, and to call in artillery and air support instead. The Flak 88’s legacy, as a tank gun, is as important as its legacy as an anti-aircraft gun, and it is a reminder that a gun designed for one purpose can be adapted for another, and can be successful in both.

6. Operational History

France, 1940: The First Anti-Tank Use

The Flak 88 first saw combat as an anti-tank gun in France, in May 1940, when German Panzer divisions were advancing on the Channel coast, and when British and French tanks counter-attacked at Arras, on 21 May 1940. The German tanks, Panzer IIIs and Panzer IVs, could not penetrate the armour of the British Matilda tanks, which were heavily armoured, and the German infantry called for the Flak 88s, which were brought forward, and which destroyed the Matildas at long range, and which stopped the British attack. The Battle of Arras was the Flak 88’s first success as an anti-tank gun, and it was a lesson that the Germans learned: the Flak 88, with its high velocity and its armour-piercing shell, could destroy any Allied tank, and it was issued to anti-tank units, as well as to anti-aircraft units, and it was used as an anti-tank gun throughout the war, in France, in North Africa and in Russia, whenever German tanks could not penetrate Allied armour.

North Africa: Halfaya Pass and El Alamein

In North Africa, the Flak 88 became the most feared German weapon after the Panzer, and this section describes how Rommel used it in the desert, at Halfaya Pass and at El Alamein. The Afrika Korps, under Erwin Rommel, used the gun to destroy British tanks at Halfaya Pass in June 1941, where Flak 88s dug in on the pass destroyed more than 90 British tanks in Operation Battleaxe, and at El Alamein in 1942, where the guns defended the German lines and destroyed British tanks at long range. The gun’s success in the desert came from its long range, which allowed it to destroy British tanks before they could get within range of their own guns, and from its position, dug in on high ground, where it could see for miles across the desert and was difficult to find and to destroy. The British learned to fear the 88 and avoided it whenever they could, developing tactics to deal with it, including artillery to suppress it and infantry to outflank it, but it remained the most feared German weapon of the campaign. Rommel understood its value and used it as an anti-tank gun, where its long range and high velocity were ideal and its trained crews could destroy British tanks at more than 2,000 metres before they could reply, and his use of the gun became a model for other German commanders, who issued it to their anti-tank units and used it in Russia against Soviet T-34s and KV-1s.

The Flak 88 in the Desert

In North Africa, the Flak 88 was used by the Afrika Korps, under Erwin Rommel, to destroy British tanks, at Halfaya Pass in June 1941, where Flak 88s, dug in on the pass, destroyed more than 90 British tanks, in Operation Battleaxe, and at El Alamein in 1942, where Flak 88s were used to defend the German lines, and where they destroyed British tanks at long range. The Flak 88’s success in North Africa was due to its long range, which allowed it to destroy British tanks before they could get within range of their own guns, and to its position, dug in on high ground, where it could see for miles across the desert, and where it was difficult to find and to destroy. The British, who had learned to fear the “88”, called it the “88” and avoided it whenever they could, and they developed tactics to deal with it, including using artillery to suppress it, and using infantry to outflank it, but the Flak 88 remained, throughout the North African campaign, the most feared German weapon, after the Panzer.

Rommel’s Use of the 88

Rommel understood the Flak 88’s value, and he used it as an anti-tank gun, in the desert, where its long range and its high velocity were ideal, and where its crew, who were trained to fight tanks, could destroy British tanks at a range of more than 2,000 metres, before the British tanks could reply. Rommel’s use of the Flak 88 was a model for other German commanders, who learned to use the gun as an anti-tank gun, and who issued it to their anti-tank units, and who used it in Russia, where it destroyed Soviet T-34s and KV-1s, at long range, when German tanks could not. Rommel’s Flak 88s were the most famous of the war, and they are remembered in the books and films about the North African campaign, where the “88” is shown as the gun that stopped the British, and that won the battles of Halfaya Pass and of Gazala, and that made Rommel the “Desert Fox”.

Russia and the Defence of Germany

In Russia, the Flak 88 was used to destroy Soviet T-34s and KV-1s, in 1941 and 1942, when German tanks could not penetrate their armour, and when the Flak 88 was the only German gun that could. The Flak 88s in Russia were used in the defence of German positions, and in the attack on Soviet positions, and they destroyed large numbers of Soviet tanks, at long range, and they were feared by Soviet tank crews, who called the gun the “88” and who learned to avoid it, whenever they could. In the defence of Germany, from 1943 to 1945, the Flak 88 was used as an anti-aircraft gun, in the flak towers and in the batteries that defended German cities, against British and American bombers, and it shot down thousands of Allied aircraft, although it could not prevent the bombing of Germany, which continued, night and day, until the end of the war. The Flak 88’s service in Russia and in the defence of Germany was the last of its wartime service, and it was there that the gun proved its versatility, as an anti-tank gun and as an anti-aircraft gun, in the two roles for which it had been designed, and for which it had been used, throughout the war.

7. Performance and Specifications

Anti-Aircraft and Anti-Tank Performance

Specification	Flak 36
Calibre	88 mm
Barrel length	4.93 m (L/56)
Shell weight (HE)	About 9.4 kg
Shell weight (AP)	About 9.6 kg
Muzzle velocity (HE)	About 820 m/s
Muzzle velocity (AP)	About 790–800 m/s
Rate of fire	About 15–20 rounds per minute
Effective ceiling	About 8,000 m
Maximum ceiling	About 10,600 m
Armour penetration (AP)	About 110 mm at 1,000 m; about 90 mm at 2,000 m
Weight (in action)	About 7,400 kg
Crew	10–11
Traverse	360 degrees
Elevation	−3 to +85 degrees

The table shows the Flak 88’s performance: it could fire a shell to a height of more than 10,000 metres, it could fire 15 to 20 rounds per minute, and it could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres, which was enough to destroy any Allied tank in 1940 and 1941. The figures are the values most commonly given in the published histories, and they vary slightly between sources, because different versions of the gun had different muzzle velocities, and because the penetration of a shell depends on the angle of the armour, on the type of steel and on the condition of the ammunition. The reader should treat the numbers as approximate, and as a guide to the gun’s capability rather than as exact measurements for a single shot.

Comparison with Allied Anti-Aircraft Guns

Compared with Allied anti-aircraft guns, the Flak 88 was superior in muzzle velocity, in rate of fire and in versatility, and it was the most successful anti-aircraft gun of the war. The British 3.7-inch anti-aircraft gun, which was the British Army’s main anti-aircraft gun, fired a shell of about 13 kilograms, at a muzzle velocity of about 790 metres per second, to a height of about 9,000 metres, and it had a rate of fire of about 10 to 15 rounds per minute, which was slower than the Flak 88, and it was not used as an anti-tank gun, because it was too heavy and too difficult to move. The American 90 mm anti-aircraft gun, which was the United States Army’s main anti-aircraft gun, fired a shell of about 10 kilograms, at a muzzle velocity of about 820 metres per second, to a height of about 10,000 metres, and it had a rate of fire of about 15 rounds per minute, which was similar to the Flak 88, but it was not used as an anti-tank gun, because it was too heavy, and because the American Army had a separate anti-tank gun. The Flak 88’s advantage was its versatility, and its ability to be used as an anti-aircraft gun, as an anti-tank gun and as an artillery gun, which was a versatility that no Allied gun could match.

Why the 88 Was So Feared

The Flak 88 was feared because it could destroy any Allied tank, at long range, and because it was used in places where Allied soldiers did not expect it, and because its high velocity meant that its shell arrived before its sound, so that a tank crew would be hit before they heard the gun fire. The gun’s reputation was made in France, in North Africa and in Russia, where it destroyed Allied tanks at ranges at which the Allied tanks could not reply, and where it was used by German gunners who were well trained and who fought with skill. The Flak 88’s fear was also a result of its name: the “88” was a simple name, and it was easy to remember, and it became a byword for German firepower, in the same way that the Tiger became a byword for German tank power, and the Stuka became a byword for German air power. The Flak 88 was, in the end, a gun that was feared because it was good, and because it was used well, by men who understood its power.

The Flak 41 in Detail

The Flak 41, which was built in 1941, had a longer barrel, of 74 calibres, and a higher muzzle velocity, of about 1,000 metres per second, and it could penetrate about 150 millimetres of armour at 1,000 metres, against the Flak 36’s 110 millimetres, and it could shoot down aircraft at a greater height, than the Flak 36. The Flak 41, however, was more complex, it was more expensive, and its barrel wore out quickly, and it was built in only about 550 examples, and it was used mainly in the defence of Germany, where its higher velocity was useful against high-flying American bombers. The Flak 41 is a reminder that a gun can be improved, but that the improvement must be worth the cost, and that the Flak 36, which was simpler and cheaper, was the gun that was built in large numbers, and that won the reputation of the 88, and that is remembered today, as the most famous gun of the Second World War.

8. Operators

Germany

The Flak 88 was used by Germany, by the German Army, by the Luftwaffe and by the Waffen-SS, from 1933 to 1945, and it was the standard anti-aircraft gun of the German armed forces, and it was used in every theatre of the war, from France to North Africa to Russia, and in the defence of Germany itself. The gun was operated by the Luftwaffe’s flak units, which were responsible for the defence of German cities, and by the Army’s flak units, which were responsible for the defence of German troops in the field, and by the Waffen-SS, which used the gun as an anti-tank gun, in the battles in Russia and in Normandy. The Flak 88 was a German gun, designed by a German company, built in German factories, and used by German soldiers, and it became a symbol of the German armed forces, and of German firepower, in the Second World War.

Other Users

The Flak 88 was a German gun, but it was used by many other armies, during the war and long after it, and this section follows it into Allied hands and into post-war service around the world. After the war, the gun was used by France, Spain, Yugoslavia, Finland and Argentina, who used captured Flak 88s as anti-aircraft guns until the 1950s and 1960s, when they were replaced by more modern guns, and its long post-war service is a measure of its success, because it was reliable, powerful, and available in large numbers as captured guns, and no other gun could do the things it could do. The Spanish Army, which had used it in the Spanish Civil War, continued to use it until the 1960s, when it was replaced by American guns. Captured guns were also used by the Allies during the war, who studied them to understand German anti-aircraft tactics and in some cases used them in combat against German aircraft in the last months of the war: the British Army used them in North Africa, the American Army used them in Italy, and the Soviet Army used them in Russia as anti-tank guns against German tanks. The gun’s use by so many armies ensures it is remembered not only as a German gun, but as a gun of the Second World War as a whole.

Post-War Service Around the World

After the war, the Flak 88 was used by many countries, including France, Spain, Yugoslavia, Finland and Argentina, who used captured Flak 88s, and who used them as anti-aircraft guns, until the 1950s and 1960s, when they were replaced by more modern guns. The Flak 88’s post-war service is a measure of its success: it was built for the Second World War, but it remained in service for a decade after the war, because it was reliable, because it was powerful, and because it was available in large numbers, as captured guns, and because no other gun could do the things that it could do, as an anti-aircraft gun and as an anti-tank gun. The Flak 88 was also used by the Spanish Army, which had used it in the Spanish Civil War, and which continued to use it after the war, until the 1960s, when it was replaced by American guns.

Captured Guns in Allied Hands

Captured Flak 88s were used by the Allies, who studied them, and who used them to understand German anti-aircraft tactics, and who, in some cases, used them in combat, against German aircraft, in the last months of the war. The British Army used captured Flak 88s in North Africa, and the American Army used captured Flak 88s in Italy, and the Soviet Army used captured Flak 88s in Russia, where they were used as anti-tank guns, against German tanks, which was a use that the gun had been designed for, in reverse. The Flak 88’s use by so many different armies is a measure of its success, and it ensures that the gun is remembered not only as a German gun, but as a gun of the Second World War as a whole, and as one of the most successful weapons of the war.

9. Legacy and Influence

The Most Famous Gun of the War

The Flak 88’s legacy is, above all, its reputation as the most famous gun of the Second World War, and as a weapon that was feared by Allied soldiers, airmen and tank crews, in every theatre of the war. The “88” became a byword for German firepower, and it is still remembered today, more than eighty years after the war, as the gun that could destroy any tank, and that could shoot down any aircraft, and that was used in every battle, from France to North Africa to Russia. The Flak 88’s fame is a measure of its success, and it is a reminder that a weapon’s reputation is not only its performance, but the fear that it inspires, and the stories that are told about it, by the men who faced it, and by the men who used it.

From Anti-Aircraft Gun to Tank Gun

The Flak 88’s most lasting influence was its adaptation as a tank gun, as the KwK 36 for the Tiger I, and as the KwK 43 for the Tiger II, which were the most powerful tank guns of the war, and which set a standard for tank armament that influenced the design of later tanks, including the Soviet IS-2, the American Pershing and the British Centurion, which were all armed with guns of similar power. The Flak 88 showed that an anti-aircraft gun, with its high velocity and its armour-piercing shell, could be adapted as a tank gun, and that a tank gun did not have to be designed from scratch, but could be based on an existing gun, which was a lesson that tank designers learned, and that they have not forgotten, even today, when tank guns are still based on anti-aircraft guns, in some cases. The Flak 88’s legacy, as a tank gun, is as important as its legacy as an anti-aircraft gun, and it is a reminder that a weapon designed for one purpose can be adapted for another, and can be successful in both.

The 88 in Popular Culture

In popular culture the Flak 88 is remembered as the “88”, and it appears in films, in books and in model kits, and it is one of the most modelled guns in the world, with kits in every scale and in every variant. The gun’s story — a gun designed to shoot down aircraft, that was used to destroy tanks, and that became the most feared gun of the war — is one of the most compelling stories of the Second World War, and it has been told in the films about North Africa and about Russia, where the “88” is shown as the gun that stopped the British and the Soviets, and that won the battles of Halfaya Pass and of Arras. The Flak 88’s place in popular culture is a measure of its fame, and it ensures that the gun will be remembered, not only as a weapon, but as a symbol of German firepower and of the Second World War.

The 88 in the Spanish Civil War

The Flak 88 first saw combat in the Spanish Civil War, where it was used by the German Condor Legion, to shoot down Republican aircraft, and where it was first used to destroy Republican tanks, at a time when the German Army had no anti-tank gun that could penetrate the armour of the Soviet tanks that the Republicans used. The German gunners in Spain learned that the Flak 88 could destroy a tank at a range of more than 2,000 metres, and they reported this to Berlin, where the lesson was learned, and where the Flak 88 was issued to anti-tank units, as well as to anti-aircraft units, in the Second World War. The Spanish Civil War was the Flak 88’s first test, and it passed it, as an anti-aircraft gun and as an anti-tank gun, and it was there that its reputation as the 88 was made, a reputation that would follow it through the Second World War, and that is still remembered today.

10. Surviving Examples

Museums in Europe

Surviving Flak 88 guns are held in museums in Europe, including the Imperial War Museum in London, the Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, the Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France, and the Military Historical Museum of Artillery in St Petersburg, Russia, where the gun is displayed as an example of German anti-aircraft and anti-tank artillery. The museums display the gun on its cruciform mount, so that visitors can see how large it was, and can understand why it was feared, and they tell the story of its use in France, in North Africa and in Russia, and of its adaptation as a tank gun, for the Tiger I and the Tiger II. The Flak 88 is one of the most common German guns in museums, because more than 20,000 were built, and because many were captured by the Allies, and because they were preserved as examples of German artillery design.

Museums Abroad and Private Collections

Outside Europe, the Flak 88 can be found in American museums and in private collections, and this section tells the reader where to look for it. Surviving guns are held in museums in the United States, including the National WWII Museum in New Orleans, the United States Army Artillery Museum at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., where the gun is displayed as an example of German anti-aircraft artillery, and many of these guns were captured by American forces in North Africa and in Europe, brought to the United States for trials, studied by American engineers, and fired to test their performance. Private collectors in Europe and in the United States also hold Flak 88 guns, and the gun is one of the most sought-after German weapons by collectors, because of its history, its association with Rommel and with the North African campaign, and its distinctive cruciform mount. For most visitors, the easiest way to see one is at the Imperial War Museum in London, in the Second World War galleries, or at the Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, or at the National WWII Museum in New Orleans, where it is displayed in the context of the North African campaign, and its size makes it easy to find, with its story told on the label beside it.

The United States and Other Countries

Surviving Flak 88 guns are also held in museums in the United States, including the National WWII Museum in New Orleans, the U.S. Army Artillery Museum at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., where the gun is displayed as an example of German anti-aircraft artillery. Many of these guns were captured by American forces in North Africa and in Europe, and they were brought to the United States for trials, where they were studied by American engineers, and where they were fired, to test their performance. Private collectors in Europe and in the United States also hold Flak 88 guns, and the gun is one of the most sought-after German weapons by collectors, because of its history, its association with Rommel and with the North African campaign, and its distinctive cruciform mount. The gun’s survival in so many museums is a measure of its historical importance.

Seeing a Flak 88 Today

For most visitors, the easiest way to see a Flak 88 is at the Imperial War Museum in London, where the gun is displayed in the Second World War galleries, or at the Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, where it is displayed as an example of German artillery. Visitors who cannot travel to London or to Dresden can see a Flak 88 at the National WWII Museum in New Orleans, where the gun is displayed in the context of the North African campaign. The gun’s size makes it easy to find in a museum gallery, and its story, which is told on the label beside it, is one of the most interesting stories of the Second World War: a gun designed to shoot down aircraft, that was used to destroy tanks, and that became the most famous gun of the war.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the Flak 88?
The Flak 88 was Germany’s 88 mm anti-aircraft gun of the Second World War, designed by Krupp. It was also used as an anti-tank gun, and it could penetrate about 110 mm of armour at 1,000 metres.

How many Flak 88 guns were built?
More than 20,000 Flak 88 guns were built, in all versions, between 1933 and 1945.

Why was the Flak 88 so feared as an anti-tank gun?
The Flak 88 had a high muzzle velocity of about 820 m/s, and it could destroy any Allied tank at long range, at a time when German tanks could not penetrate Allied armour. It was used at Arras in 1940, at Halfaya Pass in 1941 and in Russia in 1941.

What is the difference between the Flak 18, 36 and 37?
The Flak 18, 36 and 37 were almost identical, with the Flak 36 having a three-section barrel and the Flak 37 having a new fire-control system. They all used the same ammunition and were all known as the “88”.

Was the Flak 88 used as a tank gun?
Yes. The Flak 88’s design was adapted as the 8.8 cm KwK 36 gun for the Tiger I, and as the 8.8 cm KwK 43 gun for the Tiger II, which were the most powerful tank guns of the war.

Where can I see a Flak 88 today?
Surviving Flak 88 guns are displayed at the Imperial War Museum in London, the Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, the National WWII Museum in New Orleans and the Military Historical Museum of Artillery in St Petersburg.

Sources

1. Wikipedia, “8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41” — production of more than 20,000, specifications, use as anti-tank gun and the Flak 41.
2. Ian V. Hogg, German Artillery of World War Two (Greenhill Books, 1997) — Flak 88 design, development and service.
3. Chris Bishop, The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II (Sterling, 2002) — specifications and comparison with Allied guns.
4. Terry Gander, The 88mm Flak (Pen & Sword, 2008) — the Flak 88 in France, North Africa and Russia.
5. Steven J. Zaloga, The Flak 88 in Combat (Osprey Publishing, 2012) — the Flak 88 as an anti-tank gun and its use by Rommel.
6. Imperial War Museum, London — surviving Flak 88 guns and the North African campaign.