Crusader Tank

The Crusader tank was the main British cruiser tank of the North African campaign, and one of the most controversial British tanks of the Second World War. Built by Nuffield Mechanizations between 1940 and 1943, about 5,300 Crusaders were produced, and the tank equipped the armoured divisions that fought Rommel’s Afrika Korps in the desert. The Crusader was fast, with a top speed of about 42 km/h, and it was armed first with the 2-pounder and later with the 6-pounder gun, but it was plagued by mechanical unreliability: its Liberty engine overheated, its cooling system failed in the desert heat, and its tracks and suspension wore out quickly. The tank’s armour was thin, and its crew suffered heavy losses. Despite these faults, the Crusader was the best cruiser tank Britain could produce in quantity in 1941–1942, and it fought in every major desert battle from Operation Crusader to El Alamein. Its unreliability became a byword, but it also taught the British Army hard lessons about tank design and maintenance that shaped the Cromwell and the Comet that followed.

1. Key Facts

Type	Cruiser tank
Origin	United Kingdom
In service	1941–1943 (front line); later in training and specialist roles
Number built	About 5,300
Crew	5 (Crusader I–II); 3 (Crusader III)
Weight	About 18.8 tonnes (Crusader I); about 20 tonnes (Crusader III)
Armour	7–51 mm
Main armament	2-pounder (40 mm) gun, later 6-pounder (57 mm) gun
Engine	Nuffield Liberty Mk III, 12-cylinder petrol, 340 hp
Top speed	About 42 km/h on roads
Operators	United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa

2. Development

The Cruiser Tank Concept

British tank doctrine in the 1930s divided tanks into two types: slow, heavily armoured infantry tanks to support infantry, and fast cruiser tanks to exploit breakthroughs and fight enemy tanks. The Crusader was a cruiser tank, designed for speed and mobility, and it was developed from the earlier A13 cruiser, which had introduced the Christie suspension to British tank design. The War Office ordered the new tank, designated A15, from Nuffield Mechanizations in 1939, and the design was rushed into production: the first prototype was built in 1940, and the tank entered service in 1941 without the extensive trials that would normally have been carried out. The haste was understandable — Britain had lost most of its tanks in France and needed new tanks urgently — but it meant that the Crusader’s faults were not discovered until it was in service in the desert.

Nuffield and the Liberty Engine

The Crusader’s engine was the Nuffield Liberty, a 12-cylinder petrol engine of 340 hp, a development of the American Liberty engine of the First World War. The engine was powerful, but it was old-fashioned and unreliable, and its cooling system was inadequate for the desert. The Crusader’s engine compartment was cramped, and the cooling fans were driven by a complex system that was prone to failure. The tank’s Christie suspension, with its large road wheels and coil springs, gave a good ride and high speed, but it was also complex and difficult to maintain. The Crusader’s design was a compromise between speed, armour and firepower, and the compromise was not a happy one: the tank was fast, but it broke down too often and its armour was too thin.

Production and the Rush to the Desert

Production of the Crusader began in 1940, and about 5,300 vehicles were built by Nuffield and other firms by 1943. The tank was rushed to North Africa in 1941, where it equipped the 7th Armoured Division and other formations for Operation Crusader, the offensive from which the tank took its name. The operation, in November–December 1941, was the Crusader’s first major battle, and it exposed the tank’s faults: of the 600 Crusaders that took part, a large proportion broke down before they reached the battlefield, and many more were lost to mechanical failure rather than to enemy action. The tank’s unreliability became a major problem, and the British Army’s maintenance and recovery services were stretched to the limit.

3. Design

Armour and Protection

The Crusader’s armour was thin by the standards of 1941: 51 mm at the front of the turret, 40 mm at the front of the hull, and 7 to 14 mm at the minimum. The armour was mostly riveted, and the tank’s sides were protected by a single plate that was vulnerable to German anti-tank guns. The Crusader I had a small auxiliary turret in the hull front, mounting a 7.92 mm Besa machine gun, which was manned by a fifth crewman. The auxiliary turret was a leftover from the A10 design, and it was a weakness: it took up space, it was difficult to use, and it was removed in the Crusader III. The tank’s low silhouette — about 2.2 metres high — made it a small target, but its thin armour meant that it was vulnerable to the German 5 cm and 7.5 cm anti-tank guns at normal combat ranges.

Suspension and Mobility

The Crusader used a Christie suspension with four large road wheels on each side, a design that gave it a good ride and a high top speed. The tank could reach about 42 km/h on roads and about 24 km/h cross-country, which made it one of the fastest British tanks of the war. The suspension was also the tank’s main weakness: the large wheels and coil springs were exposed and vulnerable to damage, and the tracks wore out quickly in the desert sand. The tank’s steering was by clutch-and-brake, and its gearbox was a four-speed manual with a pre-selector, which was tiring to use. The Crusader’s mobility was its best feature, but it was bought at the price of reliability.

Crew and Interior

The Crusader I and II had a crew of five: a driver and a hull machine-gunner in the hull, and a commander, gunner and loader in the turret. The Crusader III, with the 6-pounder gun, had a crew of three, with the commander also loading the gun, because the larger gun left no room for a loader in the small turret. The turret was cramped, especially in the Crusader III, and the commander’s workload was heavy. The driver’s position was at the front of the hull, with limited visibility, and the tank’s interior was hot and noisy. The Crusader’s crew compartment was not well designed, and the tank’s ergonomics were poor compared with the Sherman, which replaced it in 1942–1943.

4. Technical Specifications

Dimensions and Weight

The Crusader measured about 5.99 metres long, 2.64 metres wide and 2.24 metres high, with a ground clearance of about 0.4 metres. Combat weight was about 18.8 tonnes for the Crusader I and about 20 tonnes for the Crusader III. The tank could cross a trench about 2.4 metres wide, climb a vertical obstacle of about 0.6 metres, and ford water up to about 1 metre deep. Its relatively light weight made it easy to transport, but it also meant that its armour was thin and its gun was small.

Engine and Performance

The Nuffield Liberty Mk III was a 12-cylinder, water-cooled petrol engine producing 340 hp at 1,500 rpm, giving the Crusader a power-to-weight ratio of about 17 hp per tonne, which was good for a tank of its time. Fuel capacity was about 500 litres, giving a road range of about 160 km. The engine’s cooling system was inadequate for the desert, and the engine overheated frequently, especially when the tank was driven at high speed in the heat. The engine was also prone to oil leaks and to failure of the cooling fans, and the Crusader’s reliability suffered as a result. The engine was mounted at the rear, and the transmission was at the front, with a long drive shaft.

Protection and Armament in Detail

The Crusader’s main armament was the 2-pounder (40 mm) gun on the Crusader I and II, and the 6-pounder (57 mm) gun on the Crusader III. The 2-pounder could penetrate about 50 mm of armour at 500 metres, but it had no useful high-explosive shell. The 6-pounder was a major improvement, penetrating about 80 mm at 500 metres, and it could fire a high-explosive shell. Secondary armament was a coaxial 7.92 mm Besa machine gun, and the Crusader I and II also had a hull-mounted Besa in the auxiliary turret. Ammunition stowage was about 110 rounds for the 2-pounder and about 65 rounds for the 6-pounder. The tank also carried a 2-inch smoke mortar in the turret.

5. Armament

The 2-Pounder Gun

The 2-pounder was the standard British tank gun of 1940–1941, and it was adequate against the Italian tanks and the early German Panzer III of that period. It was accurate and had a high rate of fire, but its small calibre meant that it could not fire a high-explosive shell large enough to be useful against infantry or anti-tank guns, and it was soon outclassed by the German 5 cm gun. The Crusader I and II, armed with the 2-pounder, were at a disadvantage against the German Panzer III and Panzer IV with the long 5 cm and 7.5 cm guns, and the tank’s crews often found themselves outranged.

The 6-Pounder Gun

The 6-pounder, introduced on the Crusader III in 1942, was a much better weapon. It could penetrate the frontal armour of the Panzer III and Panzer IV at normal ranges, and it gave the Crusader a fighting chance against German tanks. The 6-pounder was also used on the Churchill and the Valentine, and it was the standard British anti-tank gun of 1942–1943. The Crusader III’s turret was too small to accommodate a loader alongside the 6-pounder, so the commander had to load the gun, which reduced the tank’s rate of fire and the commander’s ability to command. The 6-pounder was a good gun, but the Crusader III’s turret was not a good home for it.

Machine Guns and Close Defence

The Crusader’s secondary armament was the 7.92 mm Besa machine gun, mounted coaxially with the main gun, and a second Besa in the hull auxiliary turret on the Crusader I and II. The Besa was a reliable weapon, and it was effective against infantry and soft targets. The tank also carried a 2-inch smoke mortar for laying smoke screens, and the crew carried personal weapons. The Crusader’s armament was adequate for 1941–1942, but it was never as good as the Sherman’s 75 mm gun, which could fire both armour-piercing and high-explosive rounds effectively.

6. Variants

Crusader I and II

The Crusader I was the first production version, with the 2-pounder gun, the auxiliary hull turret and a crew of five. The Crusader II was a similar version with thicker armour on the turret front and improved protection, and it was the most numerous version. Both versions served in North Africa in 1941–1942, and they were the tanks that fought in Operation Crusader and at Gazala. The Crusader II was also used as a command tank and as an artillery observation vehicle.

Crusader III

The Crusader III, introduced in 1942, carried the 6-pounder gun in a new turret without the auxiliary hull turret, and it had a crew of three. The Crusader III was the most effective gun tank version, and it served at El Alamein and in Tunisia. The tank’s small turret and the commander’s dual role as loader were serious drawbacks, but the 6-pounder gun made it a useful tank in 1942–1943. The Crusader III was the last gun tank version, and production ended in 1943.

Specialist Variants

The Crusader chassis was used for a number of specialist vehicles, including the Crusader AA, a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun with a 40 mm Bofors gun, and the Crusader III AA, with twin 20 mm Oerlikon guns. The Crusader was also used as an artillery tractor, a command tank and a recovery vehicle, and a small number were converted to gun tractors for the 17-pounder anti-tank gun. The Crusader’s chassis was also used for the Covenanter and other experimental vehicles, though these were not successful. The specialist variants kept the Crusader in service after it had been withdrawn as a gun tank.

7. Combat Record

Operation Crusader, 1941

Operation Crusader, in November–December 1941, was the Crusader’s first major battle and the operation from which it took its name. The British Eighth Army, with about 600 Crusaders, attacked Rommel’s Afrika Korps in an attempt to relieve Tobruk. The battle was a confused series of tank engagements in the desert, and the Crusader’s unreliability was a major problem: many tanks broke down before they reached the battlefield, and the British lost a large number of tanks to mechanical failure. The operation was eventually a British success — Tobruk was relieved — but the cost in tanks was high, and the Crusader’s reputation for unreliability was established.

Gazala and El Alamein

The Crusader fought at Gazala in May–June 1942, where the British were defeated by Rommel, and at El Alamein in October–November 1942, where the British won a decisive victory. At Gazala the Crusader’s thin armour and weak gun were exposed by the German 5 cm and 7.5 cm anti-tank guns, and the British lost many tanks. At El Alamein the Crusader III, with its 6-pounder gun, performed better, and the tank’s speed was useful in the pursuit after the battle. By the end of the North African campaign in May 1943, the Crusader had been replaced by the Sherman in front-line units, and it was withdrawn from service as a gun tank.

After North Africa

After North Africa, the Crusader served in training units in Britain and as a specialist vehicle, including the anti-aircraft versions that served in North-West Europe in 1944–1945. The tank was also used by the Australian and South African forces, and a small number served in Italy. The Crusader’s service as a gun tank was short — only about two years — but it was intense, and the tank fought in every major desert battle of 1941–1942. Its unreliability and its thin armour were its main faults, but it was the best cruiser tank Britain could produce in quantity at the time, and it played an important part in the desert war.

8. Operators

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom was the Crusader’s main operator, using the tank in North Africa and in training units at home. The Crusader equipped the armoured divisions of the Eighth Army, including the 7th Armoured Division, the 1st Armoured Division and the 10th Armoured Division, and it was the standard cruiser tank of the British Army in 1941–1942. By 1943 it had been replaced by the Sherman and the Cromwell, but it continued to serve in specialist roles until the end of the war.

Australia and South Africa

Australia and South Africa used the Crusader in small numbers, mainly for training and in the Middle East. The Australian forces used the Crusader in Egypt and in the Far East, and the South African forces used it in North Africa. The tank’s service with these armies was limited, but it showed the wide distribution of British tanks under the Commonwealth system. South African crews used the Crusader in the desert alongside British units, and the tank’s speed suited the mobile warfare of the North African campaign, even though its reliability frustrated its crews.

Captured Use

Captured Crusaders were used in small numbers by the German Army, which valued the tank’s speed, and by the Italian Army. The Germans used captured Crusaders as command tanks and for training, though the tank’s unreliability limited its usefulness. The British also captured German tanks and used them in the same way, and the exchange of captured vehicles was a common feature of the desert war. Captured Crusaders were generally used for reconnaissance and for liaison duties, where their speed was useful and their thin armour was less of a liability than it was in a tank battle.

9. Legacy

Lessons Learned

The Crusader’s unreliability taught the British Army hard lessons about tank design, testing and maintenance. The tank had been rushed into service without adequate trials, and its engine, cooling system and suspension had not been tested in desert conditions. The British Army’s response was to insist on proper trials for future tanks, and to improve its maintenance and recovery services. The Cromwell, the Crusader’s successor, was a much more reliable tank, and its design benefited directly from the lessons of the Crusader. The Crusader also showed the limitations of the cruiser tank concept: a fast tank with thin armour and a small gun was no match for a well-armed German tank, and the British Army moved towards the universal tank concept that led to the Centurion after the war.

Survivors and Memory

A number of Crusaders survive in museums, including the Tank Museum at Bovington in England, the Imperial War Museum at Duxford and the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The tank is a popular subject for modellers, and its distinctive shape and its association with the desert war have made it one of the most recognisable British tanks of the Second World War. Restored Crusaders run at military vehicle events, and the type is well represented in films and documentaries about the North African campaign.

Assessment

Historians generally judge the Crusader as a fast, well-armed tank that was let down by its reliability. Its Liberty engine and its cooling system were its main faults, and its thin armour and small turret were serious drawbacks. The tank was, however, the best cruiser tank Britain could produce in 1941, and it fought in the desert when Britain needed tanks most. The Crusader’s service in North Africa, and the lessons learned from its failures, were an important part of the British Army’s development, and the tank deserves to be remembered as a hard-working, if flawed, vehicle.

10. FAQ

How many Crusader tanks were built?

About 5,300 Crusader tanks were built between 1940 and 1943, by Nuffield Mechanizations and other British firms. The total includes the Crusader I, II and III gun tanks and the specialist variants built on the same chassis. Production ended in 1943, when the Crusader was replaced by the Sherman and the Cromwell, and it had equipped the armoured divisions that fought Rommel’s Afrika Korps. The Crusader was the main British cruiser tank of the North African campaign, and it fought in every major desert battle from Operation Crusader to El Alamein.

Why was the Crusader unreliable?

The Crusader’s Liberty engine overheated in the desert heat, its cooling system was inadequate, and its tracks and suspension wore out quickly in the sand. The tank had been rushed into service without adequate trials, and its faults were not discovered until it was in combat in North Africa. The British Army’s maintenance services were also stretched, and many tanks were lost to mechanical failure rather than to enemy action. Its unreliability became a byword, but it also taught the British Army hard lessons about tank design and maintenance that shaped the Cromwell and the Comet that followed.

What gun did the Crusader carry?

The Crusader I and II carried the 2-pounder (40 mm) gun, and the Crusader III carried the 6-pounder (57 mm) gun. The 6-pounder was a much better weapon, and it could penetrate the frontal armour of the Panzer III and Panzer IV at normal ranges. The Crusader III’s turret was too small for a loader, so the commander had to load the gun, and the reduction in crew was a serious drawback. The tank was fast, with a top speed of about 42 km/h, and it was armed first with the 2-pounder and later with the 6-pounder gun.

Was the Crusader a good tank?

The Crusader was fast and well armed for its time, but its thin armour and unreliability were serious faults. It was the best cruiser tank Britain could produce in quantity in 1941-1942, and it fought in every major desert battle, but it was outclassed by German tanks. It was replaced by the Sherman in 1942-1943, and its crews respected its speed but cursed its reliability, while its armour was only 7 to 51 mm thick. About 5,300 Crusaders were built, and the tank equipped the armoured divisions that fought Rommel’s Afrika Korps in the desert.

What was the Crusader’s crew?

The Crusader I and II had a crew of five: a driver, a hull machine-gunner, a commander, a gunner and a loader. The Crusader III had a crew of three, with the commander also loading the gun, because the larger 6-pounder gun left no room for a loader in the small turret. The reduction in crew was a serious drawback, and the Crusader III’s turret was too small for a loader, so the commander had to do two jobs at once. The tank weighed about 20 tonnes, and it was fast, with a top speed of about 42 km/h.

Where can I see a Crusader tank today?

Surviving Crusaders are displayed at the Tank Museum in Bovington, England, the Imperial War Museum at Duxford and the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, among others. Restored examples also run at military vehicle events in Britain, and the type is well represented in films and documentaries about the desert war. About 5,300 Crusader tanks were built between 1940 and 1943, and the tank was the main British cruiser tank of the North African campaign. It fought in every major desert battle from Operation Crusader to El Alamein, and it was fast, with a top speed of about 42 km/h.

11. Sources

• Fletcher, David. The Great Tank Scandal: British Armour in the Second World War. HMSO, 1989.
• Fletcher, David. Crusader and Covenanter Cruiser Tanks 1939–45. Osprey New Vanguard series.
• Milsom, John, et al. Crusader. Ian Allan, 1976.
• White, B. T. British Tanks 1915–1945. Ian Allan, 1963.